Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders

Introduction Child sexual assault/abuse (CSA) falls under the larger context of child abuse. An act qualifies to be child sexual abuse when for purposes of stimulation an adult or older juvenile engages in an activity that can be deemed sexual. Within the above-defined context, child sexual abuse is takes numerous forms. It includes exposure of children to pornographic material or using juveniles in the production of materials with adult content. It may also include physical contact and exposure of juveniles’ genitals.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Additionally, it may include coercion or pressuring a juvenile into engaging in sexual acts, mild o otherwise with or without her/his consent. Additionally, CSA includes selling if children sexual services and pressuring a child to engage in sexual act ivity with or without her/his consent and regardless of the outcome. According to Tracy (2008, p. 56) child sexual abuse is especially complicated because of the psychological impacts it has on the victims. The effects of child sexual abuse include but not limited to, low self-esteem, nightmares, insomnia, and fear of the things that are associated with or that remind the child of the abuse, sexual dysfunction, fatalities, pain, anxiety and depression. Others include posttraumatic stress order, mental illnesses that include a wide range of personality disorders and suicidal thoughts. In some cases, sexually abused children grow up to become abusers themselves. One of the most consistent characteristics of child sex abuse in many researches is the fact that the abusers are close people who are normally trusted by the child. Strangers do account for a significant portion of the abusers but over 80% of the molesters are family members and friends including baby sitters, family friends, and neighbors (Hunter, J.A et al., 2003, p. 276). The problem is widely prevalent and it’s believed statistics have not yet effectively captured the true picture. Many cases still go unreported owing to the shame and guilt that is associated with it. Estimates show that close to 15% of men and 25% of women in the United States did experience sexual molestation when they were children. Causes of child abuse are as complex as the problem itself. It’s important to note that most offenders act on their own. However, the extent to which operations of the criminal justice system and the failure of the social justice system cannot be overlooked when examining the causes of the problem.Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The widely prevalent vice of sexual assault against children has reached alarming rates. It has therefore necessitated the need to come up with a new approach using sociology, law, psychology, and ethics to find a lasting solution that will help eradicate the vice besides the existing legal mechanisms. An already existsing mechanism that draws information from the mentioned disciplines is doing a good job. However, there is no doubt that there needs to be an overhaul to the established strategies of combating child sexual abuse. In the US, the criminal justice system is closely linked to the social justice system through the constitution. Child sexual offenders are accorded rights through established mechanisms that are expected to help their reintegration to the community. This approach has however fallen short of reducing child sexual abuse by the levels envisioned. That is why it’s important to consider drastic measures that ill curtail child sexual offender rights and basic liberties. The main point behind this move is to rid society of the pedophiles and deter would be offenders. The harsh sentences and measures will deny CSA offenders the basic rights that prisoners are accorded and will ensure CSA offenders express genuine remorse and desire to change and get reintegrated to the community. Most of the measures entail both community and legal systems that incorporate elements of the legal systems and healthcare that CSA offender will be accorded. It will leave them little maneuver to use the existing legal loopholes to secure freedom. The measures are the resolutions that will discussed in greater detail in the last section of this paper. Owing to the fact that the mechanisms that have been put in place seem to be overwhelmed, it’s important to consider establishing a parallel system that addresses all issues in the social and criminal justice systems that help in the reduction of the instances of the vice. The legal justice system supersedes the other systems and in a way it determines how they operate. It’s therefore imperative that the legal system incorporates sociology, law, psychology, ethics measures that will address the issue. The epitome of this paper will be a proposal of a comprehensive solution to the problem of child sexual abuse incorporating all the elements mentioned above.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Definition of terms Throughout the paper, CSA will be used to refer to child sexual abuse. Additionally, the terms sexual abuse and sexual battering will be used repeatedly and will stand to have the same meaning in this context. Incidence and demographic characteristics According to a Department of Health and Human Services report to congress in 2006, the prevalence of child sexual abuse has experiences a significant drop compared to where it was ten years earlier. The report titled National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect concluded that report ed CSA crimes had shown a decline of 38%. In 1993, the CSA cases stood slightly over 217000. The number had dropped to slightly over 135000 in 2006, according to community professionals and other stakeholders. The report however cites lack of reporting from victims and close members of the family as still highly rampant. Close to 70% of the cases are unreported especially when the abuse is going on. Despite the apparent drop in the cases of CSA, it’s important to bear in mind that the number of unreported cases are higher than the reported cases. Therefore the picture painted by the report can easily be changed if all factors were taken into account (Hunter et al., 2003, p. 276). The frequency with children are sexually abused is not clearly known because the vice i often hidden. A report by (Hanson, R.F., et al., 1999, p. 67) says that one in three girls and one in seven boys are likely to be abused in their childhood. The prevalence of the voice is also captured by the orga nization Stop It Now where in a telephone poll found out that 29% of women and 14% of me who were surveyed reported to have been sexually abused as a children. In 2006, 78,000 cases of CSA were reported to authorities and substantiated. This however represents 12%-30% of the cases that are reported. The majority of the cases are not reported. This therefore translates to between 260,000-650,000 cases of CSA in any given year. An important point to note and that is indicative of social trends as far as CSA is concerned is the fact that CSA found to be common in all racial backgrounds, religions, ages and ethnic groups and social economic levels.Advertising Looking for research paper on administrative law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Many reports point to the fact that the victims of CSA know their attackers. In fact 93% of victims personally know the person(s) that commit the abuse, according to Douglas Finkelhor (2005, p. 14) 47% of the abusers are family of extend family members while 85% of the time the children are bused close member of the family or friends in general. Offenders once caught and punished or rehabilitated, show signs of reduced likelihood of committing the offense again. CSA offenders who have been held accountable for their crimes show a high rate of recidivism. The rates for recidivism range between 15-20% without treatment while it falls to as low as 12% in cases where the perpetrators are held accountable and accorded treatment (Hanson et al, 2002, p. 28). It’s important to note that treatment is quite effective in rehabilitating the offenders hence it will form one of the solution incorporated to the expanded mechanism later on in this paper. Another interesting statistical tren d about CSA is commission of CSA by other children or juvenile offenders. Whereas adults commit the bulk of the offences of child sexual abuse, some reports have identified a consistent pattern where up to 50% of CSA offenders are under the age of eighteen years (Hunter et al, 2003, p.13). When these young adults commit these crimes, it automatically makes them juvenile offenders, which also are captured in the title of this paper. Failure to accord effective rehabilitation and treatment to juvenile offenders may result in the juveniles themselves becoming abusers in adulthood. For instance, according to Hunter Becker (1998, p. 20), 20-50% of teenagers who have committed CSA were in their childhood sexually abused. It’s therefore safe to conclude that a majority of juvenile offenders have in some way been victims of CSA. That is why acknowledgement and accordance of effective treatment to these children is necessary to prevent reoccurrence in future. Many adults especially t hose that are parents are not well informed to detect when children have been sexually abused. That is 88% of all CSA cases are never reported to the authorities (Hanson et al, 1999, p.259). There is need therefore of rolling out program that will target parents and other adults to educate them in ways of detecting CSA in their children. Causes and patterns of sexual assaults against children Not many studies have come up with the actual causes of CSA. Rather, the causes of CSA are observed through the wider context of causes of sexual abuse that happen to both adults and children (Sedlak, et al. 2010, p. 304). The thinking behind this is that all sexual offenders are driven by common factors to committing the offense to children or adults. There may be cases where pedophiles have emotional drives that make children easy prey but they as well are found in the general cases of sexual abuse. Its important to note that this section does have clear links between social and criminal just ice systems and their failures that lead to breeding of CSA offenders. These causes vary greatly and range between nature vs. nurture factors that involve biological factors e.g. physiology, drug abuse and psychopathology and environmental factors that include gender roles, motives behind pursuit of power, social learning and social dynamics involving relationships. One of the causes of sexual abuse is physiology and neurophysiology of human beings. In the bodies of CSA offenders are hormones and other chemicals that are imbalanced hence give the offender uncontrollable desires to molest children (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 176). For instance there is a relationship between testerone levels and aggression which may include sexual abuse. Similarly, head trauma and abnormalities in the human brain may also lead to an effect in hormones and sexual violence. Another factor is alcoholism and substance abuse. There is enough evidence that alcohol and other intoxicating substances lead to physica l aggression (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 178). In the cases of children, CSA offenders may attempt to drug children before actual abuse takes place. A good example is the case involving the late pop star Michael Jackson where prosecutors alleged that he drugged children with wine before sexual abuse took place. Psychopathology and personality traits also account for good number of CSA cases (Briere Eliot, 2003, p. 254). Men and women who have been diagnosed with antisocial personality disorders display psychiatric and disorders that breed coercive behavior, irresponsibility and lack of concrescence. More often than not, many CSA offenders have attitudes and gender biases that for some reason they believe are true. These offenders have myths about rape and children abuse and use the vice as a strategy in resolving problems. For instance there have been reports of men sexually abusing children in some societies with the belief that they will be healed of HIV/ Aids and other ailments. Sex an d power motives also do cause people to commit CSA (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 180). More often than not, men or women who commit CSA have power and anger motives. Many a times these men are reported to have felt rejection from the opposite sex hence the drive to relieve their anger on weaker opponents who most likely are children. In other bodies of knowledge, there seems to be consensus that socio-cultural factors contribute to sexual abuse against children (Douglas Finkelhor, 2005, p. 45). The theories suggest that the societies in which these offenders live in subtly encourage sexual immorality through history and the media that give impetus to offenders. Fro instance numerous communities in the world are known to accept marriage of girls as young as twelve years. The practice more often than not is institutionalized and accepted as normal and men and women who engage it see nothing wrong since they are paying within the accepted standards. Another element of the culture that promotes sexual abuse is the family (Berkowitz, 1992, p. 185). It’s thought that children who grow up in violent families are likely to engage in intimate sexual violence when they are adults. Besides, they may engage in CSA if help is not sough early on. Proposed solutions through the application of information from sociology, law, psychology, ethics It’s important that any solution that is sought to the vice reflects the realities that characterize the social and criminal justice systems that exist in human societies today. The solutions that will be suggested below will be done on the backdrop of the analysis of the social and criminal justice theories and the laws that govern us as enshrined in the US constitution. As earlier said the problem of CSA has reached proportions that had not been anticipated. It’s important that law enforcement agencies are given credit for their efforts in combating crime and social ills such as CSA. However, no one can deny that problem s such as CSA have persisted at a time when law enforcement budgets are stretching both the federal and state governments. Nevertheless, to lay the blame solely on the failure of the criminal justice system will myopic and will not lead to anywhere in the search for a solution. The blame therefore should be share with society as well. There sufficient evidence that social justice is in short supply and people who make up society have been caught up a web of inconsistencies by both systems that crime and other social ills have become a scapegoat (Robinson, 2009, p. 68). Scholars have criticized justice agencies as far as criminology, criminal justice and other related disciplines are concerned. There has been concern that these systems are not meeting their goals especially in achieving justice. Social justice deals with the efforts that have been out in place to ensure equal access to opportunity and good life as defined by the written and unwritten rules of the community. The main function of the criminal justice system is to optimally meet its goals of dispensing justice so that social justice can be achieved. That said, it’s important to note that there are people like CSA offenders who don’t deserve the benefits that are pursued by the systems described above (Robinson, 2009, p. 70). The United States constitution offers every citizen basic freedoms that allow him/her to freely live in the country and do what he/she needs to do to achieve the American dream. Rawls explains social justice through his theory of Justice as equality while Miller put the same contest through the theory of convention and social equality and justice. The US constitution in pursuit of universal liberty and freedom creates the conditions necessary for the realization of the above principles. Rawls says that the systems operate on constitutional essentials and helps establish background institutions that help people in their pursuit of social and economic justice throu gh freedom and equality that is guaranteed by the constitution. In the pursuit of success social ills CSA have come up that have necessitated society, criminal justice custodians and they custodians of the constitution to take a hard look at the situation. The solution for CSA is for the society and authorities to mandate drastic actions that dwell on the inconsistencies that exist in the criminal justice systems and social justice systems and curtail basic liberties of all CSA offenders (Robinson, 2009, p. 75). Curtailment of liberties and other rights under the constitution will take place on the existing guidelines but only on a larger extent than before. The curtailment of freedoms will be done through the ways discuses in the following section. These ways take into account and recommend inclusion of constitutional inconsistencies in addressing CSA. The inconsistencies include enforcement of biased laws by the police and the courts and the correctional agencies, unequal access t o defense by the suspected offenders as well as unequal application of sanctions and punishments by the correction agencies. There also should be elimination of plea-bargaining for suspected CSA offenders and determinate and mandatory sentencing by the courts of the people suspected to have committed CSA. Within the severely restricted environment where the offenders will be operating, mandatory medical and mental treatment will b accorded to the offenders as well as experimental community reintegration and supervision. Correctional facilities should also be enabled to limit access to satisfy needs by CSA offenders in their custody. The second part of the solution will entail increasing the efficiency of the monitoring and reporting systems that are in place. The fact that over 80% of cases go unreported means that many of the offenders are still walking free in the community. Therefore enhancing the criminal justice systems to easily facilitate reporting and speedy arrest will comp lement the curtailing of freedom that in the combat of CSA. The measures will discourage offender from committing the offenses again awhile at the same time acting as a deterrent for the would be offenders. Because the legal justice system supersedes all other systems, it should be designed in a way that ensures the above is implemented through the following categories of solutions (Hanson, et al. 1999, p. 56). Legal/ Justice Solutions They are referred to as tertiary measures which normally apply after the actual crime has taken place (Hanson et al. 2002, p. 208). Proponents of orthodox approaches don’t advocate for this approach because they reason the damage has already been done by the time a person is taken to court. That is why the approach of drastic curtailing of freedom and basic liberties for the CSA offenders comes in handy. Moreover the public and policy attention that these strategies will command will go a long way in deterring would be offenders from committing the offence. Looked at from a different perspective the drastic measures suggested above will ensure primary prevention of the vice through theoretically the deterrent factor will be implemented through fear of sure and serious punishment by the justice system. The above likely effect coupled with the statistics that show CSA offenders not likely to commit the offense again will effectively curb child sexual abuse. One of the factors informing the above drastic justice measures is the fact that many child sexual molesters are likely to be educated people rather than criminal who specialize in the offence. The fear of losing a good life that is defined by education and status is likely to deter these â€Å"undercover† molesters. Lifetime incarceration for CSA offenders is unlikely to work in that face of the reduced freedoms accorded to criminals and suspected criminals. The drastic criminal justice policy that suggested above will accept albeit sparingly the reintroduction o f offenders into the society still with reduced liberties and increased monitoring through registration systems that will keep track of their activities. In essence the drastic plan proposes â€Å"caged freedom† from the released offender. They include offender registration, mandatory registration, residency restriction and civil commitment and sentence lengthening. Offender registration Currently all states have offender registries that are electronic. The systems allow for raid apprehension of the offenders incase recommitment of the crime any crime related to CSA (John, 2005, p. 87). Some advocates have argued that requirement that the offenders wear electronic surveillance chops affects their reintegration to society and violated the rights of the offenders who have already served their terms. After the implementation of the registration in late 1990’s studies that followed suggested little drop in the sex related crimes. This was moistly attributed to non-complian ce on the part of the offenders. In some states the rate of sex crimes especially on children remained the same while in one state-California it went up that is why the drastic plan suggested above will be seeking to legalize the implantation of electronic surveillance chips into the bodies of offenders up to the time when the authorities feel one is in a apposition not to commit the offence again Community notification This provision acts on the basis of the Megan law of 1996 that informs of neighbors and other interested parties of the whereabouts of a released offender. Community notification while it aims to protect neighbors and people around offenders, will be seeking to isolate the offenders till they decide to seek reintegration through expression of remorse. In the suggested solution some requirements for the offender to end his/isolation will include volunteering to educate his/her community on CSA and the implications it carries for the victims. The drastic plan will dema nd that the offender shows some initiative towards reintegration upon release in any form of deviant behavior will result into incarceration without the basic rights as outlined earlier on. Mandatory background checks Mandatory background checks have almost become the norm in organizations when applying for work or volunteer positioning organizations. Many employers have relied on public registries for information on potential employee’s criminal records. The main reason for these checks will be to bar dangerous people with a record of molesting children from serving in positions where they can easily commit the offence again. The measures outlined earlier will go further and suggest that guidelines be introduced that will limit the types of jobs that a released offender should be allowed to apply for. They guidelines should be specific that the offenders should never be employed in situations where they come to private contact with juveniles either directly or indirectly. Re sidency Restriction Residency restrictions exist in many states and localities. The statutes that have introduced the laws are specific where released CAA offenders can visit. The main aim to prevent them from getting closer to areas frequented by children. These areas include daycare centres, churches, and schools. The law is already drastic as it is. It has been reported by sex offender management authorities that released sex offenders have difficulty securing descent residences owing to the fact that they are classified as CSA’s. However, the measures outlined earlier should include among other restrictions the possibility of offenders loosing some of their rights as citizens of the state if they are convicted and if they don’t show any progress towards reintegration and reformation. The threat to deny them basic state rights will be a big deterrent to the would be offenders and the released one who are likely to engage in the ice again. Sentence Lengthening and Ci vil Commitment This involves meting out of long prison sentences to sex offenders. Though many states have increased the length of prison terms for sex offenders there is need within the proposed solution of drastic measures to include a life sentence for offenders who show no remorse or who may be determined through assessment to be danger to the community. Already some states still hold offenders they deem dangerous even after the completion of their term in prison. Possibility of life in prison without parole for sex offenders will rid the community of the dangerous elements and CSA crimes will considerably reduce. Enhanced reporting, detection and arrest It’s important that law enforcement put in place mechanisms that will nab free CSA offenders. The programs will entail elaborate measures that will be available to vulnerable groups and interested parties like parents that will enable them report crimes relating to CSA. Psychological solutions Mental health treatment Many CSA offenders have been found to mentally unstable. Psychological solutions including therapeutic treatment will be recommended. However, even then, they will still some basic freedom that they may be enjoying currently. This is to deter people who may be of sound mind from committing CSA offenses and feigning mental instability afterwards. Mental treatment will be provided but within the confines of the drastic solution measurers as may be applicable. Sociological solutions Community Prevention of Offending Community prevention offending will be taking place within the proposed framework where there will be reduced liberties for CSA offenders in both the criminal justice and social justice systems. There is the possibility of that the free CSA offenders may not one caught due to one reason or the other. There is therefore need to launch programs that will utilize the proposed measures to encourage offenders who need help to come forth. The programs will promise help to the offende rs who freely confess and exemption to some extent from the drastic measures that caught CSA offenders will go through. The CPO programs will work with law enforcement and community organizations and may involve establishment of confidential lines where the offenders will call and can be counseled anonymously. Efforts will be, made to detect the addresses of the offenders though no arrests will be made. They offenders will be urged to surrender in return for the above promised treatment from authorities. Within the drastic measures, policy makers should consider introducing mandatory education to parents and other stakeholders on ways of identifying sexual offenders and ways thorough which on can tell that a child has been sexually abuse. Currently, taking the courses is not mandatory, but voluntary for those that want to do so. Moreover, it’s not paid for by the state. Requirements will also from local authorities to run adverts to that effect. Ethical solutions In many prof essions there is normally a code of conduct that governs the behavior expected of each member. Client privacy is highly regarded in the professions especially in the medical field. While its requirement by the law that every citizen report crimes he/she witnesses. Very often these professionals do come in contact with lawbreakers including CSA offenders who confess of their crimes. While they are required by law to report the crimes, they are also bound by the code of ethics that may equate such exposure to breach of doctor patient confidentiality. The dilemma that the professionals find themselves in does little to help in combating CSA offenses. It’s important to note that professionals in this fields are in custody of critical information that can lead to the arrest and incarceration of CSA offenders. Reconciliation of standard and legal requirements to aid reporting One of the ways to address the above problem is through a reconciliation of the standard practice and legal requirements to allow professionals who would want to report such crimes to do so. In fact when the drastic measures are solution is considered, the professionals will be required to report any such occurrence so that the course of justice can take place. It can be argued that ethics will entail being true to what the society believes in right. Therefore reporting of crimes including CSA will be an obligation of any professional who comes across any in the course of practice. The laws will be seeking to propose penalties for professionals who may not adhere to the requirements. Conclusion The solution and the components under it were developed with the sole aim of enhancing community and victim safety. After going through the drastic measures that have been outlined above, one may be tempted to ask if they will work. Well there still is need to conduct further research on the issues before actual implementation takes place. However, hypothetically, the measures are bound to produce significant results on deterrence and prevention if CSA offenses. One of the assumptions that the solution assumes is the availability of resources that will be committed to implementing the drastic measures. The measures are also aimed at preventing reoffending hence the proposed strict incarceration and denial of basic rights measures. Finally the solutions will succeed if there is sufficient information regarding CSA crimes e.g. facts on incidence, prevalence and victim information. Additionally there should be information on sex offenders and the behaviors that are associated with them. Furthermore, the solution will succeed if there is education on the prevention and risk reduction measures among the population. The authorities should also while implementing the solution ensures there is enough information on the availability of resources for victims’ families and communities affected by the vice. Finally there should be social campaigns that promote responsible behavio r to promote respectful interaction between people and to minimize the chances of CSA happening. There is no perfect solution to the problem of CSA offenses. However, there is always room for the improvement of the existing laws to accommodate the new trends that the criminal activities like CSA are taking. The solution proposed here seeks to deny offenders and would offenders that every free person values. The assumption is that offenders who have been convicted and released after going through proposed system will lack the will to commit the crime again. Additionally, the proposed solution envisions a situation where would be offenders are deterred from committing any CSA crime given on the face of increased penalties. The solution is drastic in such a way that it seeks the enactment of statutes that will make the implementation of the measures mandatory by the federal and state agencies. References Berkowitz, A. (1992). College Men as Perpetrators of Acquaintance Rape and Sexual Assault:A Review of Recent Research. Journal of American College Health, Vol. 40, 175-181. Briere, J. Eliot, D.M. (2003). Prevalence and Psychological Sequence of Self- Reported Childhood Physical and Sexual Abuse in General Population: Child Abuse and Neglect. Douglas,   E. Finkelhor,D. (2005). Childhood sexual abuse fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.unh.edu/ccrc/factsheet/pdf/childhoodSexualAbuseFactSheet.pdf. Crimes Against Children Research Center. Hanson, R.K., et al. (2002). First report of the Collaborative Outcome Data Project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sexual offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 14 (2), 169-194 Hunter, J.A et al., (2003). Juvenile sex offenders: Toward the Development of a typology. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, (2003) Volume 15, No. 1). Hanson, R.F., et al. (1999).   Factors related to the reporting of childhood sexual assault. Child Abuse and Neglect. Pp.i23,559-569). John, Q . (2005). Preventing Sexual Violence: How Society Should Cope with Sex Offenders Washington: American Psychological Association Robinson, M. (2009). Justice blind? Ideals and realities of American criminal justice (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Sedlak, A.J. et al. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. Tracy, V. (2008). The Pursuit of Safety: Sex Offender Policy in the United States. New York: Vera Institute of Justice. This research paper on Sexual assaults against children; with adult and juvenile offenders was written and submitted by user Jason Wilkins to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Le rossignol essays

Le rossignol essays Le Rossignol est un lai de Marie de France qui setait traduire en vers romans de huit syllables entre les annee 1160 et 1180. Dans Le Rossignol, Marie de France examine lamour courtois et lamour de la court qui observe des regles. Un exemple de ses regles sappele **Traite de lamour courtois** de Andre Le Chapelain qui nous avons deja lu en classe. Marie de France a ecrit ce lai en troisieme personne. Donc, mous pouvons avoir une comprehension dans lensemble de lhistoire, comme le but, les images et le ton; mais, nous navons pas une complete comprehension des points de vue personnels des lepoux, la femme, et le voisin (lautre homme). Dans **Le Rossignol** par Marie de France, il y a un but evident, a mon avis. Cest clair que dans ce lai la femme dans le mariage na pas de pouvoir. Elle est marie avec un homme, mais est amoureuse dun autre homme. Cet amour ne sexprime pas a cause de lepoux. Cest une chose enervante, cest vrai. Et quand lepoux est tue le rossignol il est tue lamour entre la femme et lautre homme. Cest triste. Mais, pour un instant je veux explorer le point de vue de lepoux. Imaginez que vous etes lepoux dans ce lai. Vous etes marier avec une dame et vous avez lespoir dune vie contente et facile. Vous connaissez les regles de lamour et vous avez confiance en lavenir. Malheureusement, votre epouse fait des choses que vous naimez pas. Toutes les nuits elle va a la fenetre et elle ne reste pas avec vous. Enfin, vous tuez lexcuse quelle vous donne-le rossignol. Il y a des gens en ma classe qui pensent que lepoux etait mechant. Moi, je plainds lepoux. Il est la victim de lamour entre la femme et le voisin. Il ne fait rien a lautre homme ou sa femme directement quand il decouvre la verite...

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To what extent was independence a gift from Britain Essay Example for Free

To what extent was independence a gift from Britain Essay On 14 of August 1947, Prime Minister Nehru spoke of the handover of power being a moment in history, when we step out from the old to the new. This message, coming from one crucial in the independence movement, unsurprisingly carries connotations of Independence coming through the actions of Indians, with a sense of growth alien to British interests and control. In contrast to the violent upsurge against the French in Indo-China, the reasons behind the annexation of India from the British Empire are both subtle and complex. While in a violent uprising it is relatively simple to discern that power has been taken, rather than given, the non-cooperation tactics employed in India clarifies little. The steady rise in pressure from Indian nationalists in conjunction with the apparently hurried withdrawal in 1947 have lead to a belief that Britain was effectively forced out of India. Whilst a possibility, this must however be regarded in relation to Britains changing objectives in an alien world to that of the early ideology of the Raj. In terms of historiography, two divergent views can clearly be discerned. That of the neo-imperialist presents independence as a nurtured gift of British benevolence. Exponents of this theory such as Sir Percival Griffiths point out that, other ruling powers have abdicated after defeat in war or as a result of successful insurrection, but it was left for Britain to surrender her authority as part of a process of devolution which had been operating for some time. While as a superficial judgement this statement proves true, for Britain did never lose complete control, it does perhaps insinuate a control in withdrawal that is inconsistent with the hurried exit of 1947. The concept of a state abdicating control of an advantageous situation by its own volition makes little sense, nor is there any precedent for this policy before the First World War. Statements of Lord Hardinge in 1912 boldly spoke of the permanence of British rule in India1 and so the neo-Imperial stipulation of plans for devolution, which had been in operation for some time cannot wholly be upheld, indeed it was not until 1942 that any affirmative time scale was introduced, or so claims the Nationalist interpretation. Here the Cripps offer of 1942 is seen as a post dated cheque by the Indian scholar Sumit Sarkar2, and independence is presented as seized from Imperial Britain by virtue of irresistible pressure by congress and its allies. This too however must also be seen to be draw from only a partial reading of events. As Griffiths points out, British control, though strained and tested, was not broken. Power was not seized, but granted by an act of the imperial parliament at Westminster. As such these polarized interpretations can be seen to reflect only half-truths, simplistic interpretations of a long and complex road to Indian freedom. In broad terms certain factors must be established and accepted, such as the vital and necessary role of a nationalist movement calling for independence. The claim that states do not willingly give up occupation must be considered in relation to possible economic motives, with the role of resistance within states leading to economic loss also taken into account. Due to statements such as that of Lord Hardinges in 1912, it must be conceded that Britain initially desired to continue the Raj before the First World War, however this cannot not be accepted de facto there onwards. One possible explanation for Britains withdrawal in 1947, which suggests independence was given willingly, is the diminishing importance of India and South East Asia. Both politically and economically Britain was, by 1947, deeply evolved in the Middle East. The oil-rich nature of many of these nations contrasted sharply with lack of Indian productivity for, as Lord Wavell specified, India will never, within any time we can foresee, be an efficient country3. This sentiment from the Viceroy in 1944 could be dismissed as simply seeking to save face except that it is from a private document to Prime Minister Churchill, and so can be seen as a reliable insight into the direction of British thought. The later mention of India possibly becoming a running sore which will sap the strength of the British Empire4 further suggests the lack of any economic basis for Britain holding onto India. One of the primary reasons for this was that the prosperity and efficiency of the Raj rested with an Indian populace that, even by 1941, was only 7% literate. Not only is this figure inconsistent with the British desire for efficiency, when coupled with a lack of self sufficiency (on average between 1930-40 once every four years around three million tons of grain had to be imported to avert famine, 4.27 million in 19365) this clearly illustrates part of Indias economic weakness. Nevertheless, the fact that literacy was rising and these problems were not new, clearly indicates that economic inefficiency did not give immediate rise to any British need to quit India. Instead, the role of trade, particularly in the rapidly changing post war situation, is far more significant. Crucially it is here that major profit is made, and Britains dominance was in decline. In contrast to Britains pre-war6 profits from cotton trade imports to India of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½37.9 million7, the rise in imports from Japan and America (by some 400% overall8) can be linked with the decline in cotton trade profits to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½27.2 million in 1919, a shift that Lawrence James terms as a fracture9 to the Anglo-Indian economic inter-dependency. This is perhaps the most accurate reflection but of greater interest is the à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100 million of British War debt that the Indian Government assimilated in return for being able to tax Lancashire cottons. This ability to obtain concessions from the British Government due to its financial constraints illustrates both Britains decline as a world power and thus Indias rising parity. Furthermore, the fact that after World War Two India passed from being Britains debtor to its creditor acutely reflects the gradual decline in the strength of Britains economic grasp over India. Coupled with the realisation that it was no longer necessary to have political control as a prerequisite of stable trade, the economics of Britains situation appears to make withdrawal beneficial. The prospect of a repetition of the costly insurrection of 1942 and of Muslim separatism exploding into civil war threatened not only further financial loss, but also to expose the weakened state of the ICS10 and other agencies of coercion. As Ian Copland suggests, with its shrinking resources Britain may well have wished to extricate itself from its responsibilities in India11. Britains steel frame of institutions such as the ICS, the Indian Army and the Police force had become seriously degraded, effectively loosening control over and within India. The move therefore to not fund a mass of inefficient bureaucracy whilst still profiting from trade, would be a shrewd one. Declining profitability is perhaps the strongest evidence for independence being a gift from Britain, with India being a net liability that had to be cast off according to R.F.Holland12. Although the situation was not as extreme as that of the Congo, where Belgium simply withdrew after the 1958 Copper Crash, a downward economic spiral can be clearly discerned. Hollands thesis cannot be automatically assumed for, as Anita Singh asserts, India was the key to achieving equality with the superpowers and reviving her war torn economy13. Economically, Hollands synopsis bears a closer relation than that of Singh to the dwindling profitability of India, especially in the post war climate, however it would be naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve to see this as the only significant factor. While Indias economic role disputed, its importance surpassed its financial value for, as Howard Brasted assesses, to have left would have accelerated the loss of Britains global influence14. Hollands point is not entirely moot and economic loss can perhaps be best seen as a contributory factor to independence, along with other reasons ranging from the United States led ideological shift away from imperialism to Labours priority of primarily focusing on Britains recovery. Whilst its value may have been that it softened a British resolve that was never predominantly altruistic, its significance is eclipsed by the strength of nationalism in India. The oil rich Middle East was Britains primary concern in terms of economic recovery and the inefficiency of India only exacerbated this. Wavells condemnation of a possible future running sore refers not only to this inefficiency, but also the increasingly detrimental effect of both peaceful and militant nationalists. In contrast with the 300 million Indians, there were only around 400,000 British in control. As Lawrence James suggests the Raj was never a totalitarian state which could do what it liked when it chose15. Throughout its history the Raj operated under powerful constraints such as the costs of its armed forces and administration16, thus the importance of Indians in running the country as a whole correlates to their importance in economic factors. In this light, it cannot be said that nationalist pressures (as opposed to direct action by Congress which had a significant impetus with regard to taxation) had a large impact on the economics of Britain and India but economics c an be seen to have greatly aided nationalism. Stemming from the days of the East India Company rule, the free-trade policy favoured Britain and stifled the growth of Indian post war industry. Congress opposition to free trade was, as Brasted states protectionism in all but name17, and therefore appealed to Indian industry. This perhaps best highlights the value of the economy to the Indian nationalist movement and eventual independence. Excluding terrorist insurgence such as that of 1942, nationalist action rarely directly affected the British economically, but rather helped to arouse the Indian population. Lord Lytton referred to the Indian peasantry as an inert mass and if it ever moves at all, it will not move in obedience to its British benefactors18. Thus economic reform was used a platform with which to arouse the masses and make evident that it was Congress, and not the Raj, which spoke for the people. Ghandi in particular must be assessed in this light as many of his policies attempted to mobilise Indians and sting the British, in some cases over economic issues. Both his Satyagraha of non-cooperation and salt tax march were attempts to defy British rule by disregarding financial laws to aid the nationalist cause. While non-cooperation illustrates the attempt to economically cripple the country, Ghandis salt tax march does perhaps reveal a more potent defiance. In reality, the salt tax march was rather bagatelle in terms of economic effect, only reducing East Indian Company profits by 2%. Instead, its significance lay in that the tax symbolised the power and intrusiveness of the Raj19. President Roosevelts talk of a prejudicial reaction on American public opinion not only if India is not allowed to secede after the war, but also if Britain is unwilling to concede the right of self-government20must be seen as significant when considering Britains economic and military dependence. This also reflects the discrepancy between Britains position and the ideological shift away from imperialism. The war against expansionist powers such as Germany and the post World War One promotion of self-determination in Europe had a dramatic effect upon the political psyche; particularly under a Labour government, the foundations upon which the Raj were built were becoming unfashionable. The symbolic attacks were also designed to arouse Indians, bringing awareness to issues that Ghandi saw as repressive, and that the populace had accepted de facto. Initiatives, even down to Ghandi only wearing a homespun dhoti (loin cloth), sought to arouse the Indian peasantry by appealing to their needs thus generating growing political awareness. The nature of Indias eventual independence as an official handover makes evident the dominance and eventual success of this peaceable strain of nationalism. Rather than seeing this as an emancipation of the Indian populace from a repressive Raj, it was instead an ignition of political thought on a grand scale. Consequently, by visually illustrating that he and Congress spoke for the common man the Raj could be undermined, thus negating the only justification for imperialist rule. Actions such as Nehrus arrest after the salt tax march demonstrated repression but it was the widespread support that was crucial. The fact that it was an over emphatic response that caused an end to the initial 1922 Satyagraha, showed the ripe state of nationalist support far removed from the inert mass that Lyttons prophecy was based on. Ghandis association and appeal to the common Indian through these policies led to Congress membership increasing from 100,000 in 1920 to over two million by the end of 1921. This rise in support was crucial in exerting political pressure on the British and led to the overwhelming majority of Congress in the 1936 elections. This delivered the tangible evidence for Congress to claim to speak for the Indian people instead of the Raj. A single party taking over 70% of the vote is overwhelming by modern standard however, its significance surpasses this obvious assessment. Whilst marking the strength of Congress, it also testified to the unity of much of India, an area that could not even be conceived of as being one nation before British rule. This fact stands as a tribute to British rule however it was also part of its undoing. The unity that the Raj encouraged in terms of centralising and homogenising the police and other services gave rise to a sense of cohesion within India that had not existed before; it is only under these circumstances that nationalism could exist and so enable Congress to gain a 76% majority. The general rise of mass protest would put vast moral and eventually economic pressure on Britain however threat of such large crowds turning to violence also appealed to some nationalists. While the 1857 Mutiny was a violent expression of anger, it is not until insurgence in 1905 that such actions were distinctly nationalistic. Similarly, events such as the 1913 assassination of Lord Hardinge, while reflecting Indian discontent, did not offer a serious threat to British rule. In contrast, the violence and delay to supplies in the 1942 Quit India movement did seriously affect the Raj, so much so that the Royal Air force fired upon rioters. Similarly, the formation of the Indian National Army under Subhas Chandra Bose21 to fight with Japan reflected not only the depth of nationalist convictions, but also the sense of nationhood within India. This growth of violence made military suppression the only antidote. Indian nationalists and the British alike had however realised that, the day has passed when you can keep India by the sword.22 The Amritsar Massacre of 1919 had demonstrated to the nationalists the resolve of some British to maintain control in India. Such actions united Indian opposition and considerably weakened the justification for British rule in India. Not only had the increasing association of Indians within the ICS weakened British control, oppressive policies were not in the nature of the Raj for the British people would not consent to be associated with repression23, as Lord Wavell specified. Instead of this physical control, political measures such as the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935 were employed in satiate nationalist agitation. Claims of historians such as Griffith that devolution had been planned for some time can be seen in the 1917 British Secretary of States announcement of developing self-governing institutions of a responsible government however crucially such moves also talks about India as an integral part of the British empire24. The Montagu-Chelmsford report reflection that nationalism will grow and that in deliberately disturbing it we are working for her highest good, is a frank admission that, as Anita Singh observed, British policy aimed to put off independence to the kalends25. The failure to dissolve nationalism despite concessions aimed at satisfying the legitimate aims of all but the most advanced Indians26 meant that reforms aimed at forestalling Congress pressure, instead intensified it. According to Ian Copeland this increasing demand led to constitutional reforms being used as a bargaining chip27 and this view appears to be an accurate reflection upon the development of British policy. Reforms such as the Government of India Act of 1935 and in particular the Cripps offer of 1942, were direct responses to nationalist pressures which as Wavell and the British realised by the end of the war had laid down a course from which we cannot now withdraw28. Such reforms cannot therefore be seen as British i nitiatives but rather as tactics to delay what, by the time off the mass civil disobedience of the 1942 Quit India movement, had become inevitable. Despite Churchills promise during the war that he did not intend to allow the liquidation of the British Empire, historians such as Howard Brasted have instead argued that the war did in fact slow the transfer of power, and not cause it29. This point is however hard to substantiate. It must be remembered that it was as late as1935 that the Government of India Act ensured the power of the Raj through the Viceroys power of veto over Indian legislation. There was perhaps a growing realisation before the war that India would have independence however all reforms up to this point suggested a slow transferral and there is little evidence to support a change in foreign policy. Some reasons for the withdrawal in 1947 were also as ignoble as the previous methods of rule. Whilst the Raj had often employed divide and rule30 tactics, the dominance of Congress over the Princes, the threat of Muslim-Hindu violence and even the financial reasoning for pulling out can be seen as less than altruistic. To condemn Britain with regard to economics is unfair as it war forced into the situation by the war but moreover to condemn Britain leaving because of its declining control is unwarranted. Far from being reproachable, to say that the Raj was forced to end by the growth of nationalism is not to automatically decry British policy. Congress dominance in the 1936 elections followed by their success in government, justified independence by demonstrating the capability of Indians to administer themselves. In Macaulayesque31 terms Britains task was complete, for Congress growth and success exploded any myths of British racial superiority. To say that this manner of leaving gives credit to the British is not to denigrate the achievement of Indians who did have to overcome the stalwart resistance of the Raj . The timing of independence, while aided by factors such as the war, was an Indian success and not a British gift. However, to end here is to wrongfully deny any British benevolent contribution. In leaving, Britain left a considerable legacy of democracy and education that is as significant today as it was in 1947. Nationalist leaders such as Ghandi, Nehru and even Bose were all Oxbridge educated and perhaps even nationalism indirectly must reflect positively upon the British, for it is only due to the Raj that as vast an area as India developed a sense of cohesion. There are as many, if not more negative aspects of British imperialism (especially to modern day sensitivities) however Britains decision to withdraw denotes much of its rule. In contrast to situations such as Frances catastrophic attempt to control Indochina, Britains lasting legacy and indeed gift was that it left peacefully. The timing was not Britains however certain aspects and its very nature are to be appreciated for, as Trevor Royle32 suggests, it is one of the Rajs enduring strengths that when the time came to go they departed with exemplary grace and dignity. Bibliography J.Brown Modern India, OUP Sir P.Moon, Wavell: the Viceroys Journal- OUP Lawrence James, Raj- Abacus R.F.Holland, European Decolonisation Macmillan Anita Singh, The Origins of the Partition, OUP Lady Balfour, Personal letters of Robert First Earl of Lytton, Longmans Ian Copeland- India- Longmans S.Wolpert, Morley and India California University Press T. Royle , The Last Days of the Raj Cambridge University press Sarkar, Modern India Macmillan The Economist, 5 April 1919 Modern History Review, Volume + No. 2, November 1990 Words- 2,987 Orig- no edit 3,385 1 J.Brown Modern India, OUP 1985, p. 197 2 Sarkar, Modern India, Ch.6 3 Lord Wavell to Churchill, Oct 1944 Sir P.Moon, Wavell: the Viceroys Journal, p. 94 4 Ibid. 5 Lawrence James, Raj Part Five, chapter 3 6 World War I 7 1913-14 8 The Economist, 5 April 1919 9 Lawrence James, Raj Part Five, chapter 5 10 Indian Civil Service, originally British dominated but increasingly Indianised 11 Ian Copeland , Raj p.85 12 R.F.Holland, European Decolonisation 13 Anita Singh, The Origins of the Partition, OUP, Ch. 7 14 Modern History Review, Volume + No. 2, November 1990 15 Lawrence James, Raj Epilogue 16 Ibid 17 Modern History Review, Volume + No. 2, November 1990 18 Lady Balfour, Personal letters of Robert First Earl of Lytton, Longmans, pp.20-1 19 Lawrence James, Raj Part four, chapter 2 20 Roosevelt to Churchill, 1942- in India by Ian Copeland, p.111 21 Leader of Congress in 1938 and Cambridge educated 22 Lord Chelmsford, 1919 James, Raj, p. 23 Lord Wavell to Churchill, Oct 1944 Sir P.Moon, Wavell: the Viceroys Journal, p. 94 24 Government Announcement of Aug. 1917, Ian Copeland- India, p.96 25 Anita Singh, Modern History Review, Volume + No. 2, November 1990 26 S.Wolpert, Morley and India, p.139 27 Ian Copeland, India, p.29 28 Lord Wavell to Churchill, Oct 1944 Sir P.Moon, Wavell: the Viceroys Journal, p. 94 29 Modern History Review, Volume + No. 2, November 1990 30 Using Princes and Muslim pressure groups to counter Congress 31 Lord T. Macaulay, MP in 1830s and altruistic promoter of education within India whos thoughts generated much of Kiplings work and set up a number of schools. 32 T. Royle , The Last Days of the Raj, p.281

The State Of Food Security In Botswana

The State Of Food Security In Botswana About 25,000 people die every day according to the United Nations report (www.unicef.org ) due to hunger, this happens because of increase in food prices resulting in at least one billion people around the world suffering. The UN and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) are working very hard to come up with the solutions to the global food scarcity and high food prices, which started the beginning of mid- 2008. The under investment in the agriculture sector has caused a silent crisis, which was worsened by the creation of a booming bio-fuel industry in which food crops are used for fuel instead of as food for eating (FAO 2008). In addition, the recent global financial crisis affecting the economies of the countries, led to loss of job to millions of people around the world thus deepening poverty. The World Food Summit 2009 (WFS) estimated that the number of hungry people could increase by a further 100 million in 2009 and pass the one billion mark. The FAO director Diouf showed a concern on the issue by saying the following words: The silent hunger crisis affecting one sixth of all of humanity poses a serious risk for world peace and security. We urgently need to forge a broad consensus on the total and rapid eradication of hunger in the world.(www.fao.org) The world is faced with all the challenges which reduce the level of access to food by all leaving many people with hunger. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, one third of the population is well fed, and one third is starving while the remaining one third of the population is under-fed. With these statistics it shows that there is not enough food for everyone in the world. The global food insecurity situation has worsened and continues to pose a threat for humanity. With the increase in food prices and transportation costs remaining high in developing countries, the number of people suffering from hunger has been increasing rapidly in recent years (FAO 2009). This increase in food insecurity has negative effects on gender equality and education, and it undermines the efforts of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Objectives and scope of the study Poverty estimates indicate that 30.3 percent of the population in Botswana is below the poverty line (CSO HIES Report 2002), that is, nearly one-third of the population. Though Botswanas poverty rate declined from 59 percent to 47 percent in 1985 and 1994 respectively, there is still evidence of high poverty as indicated by the report. In 2002/3, the national income poverty was estimated to be 33 percent and subsequently stood at 30.2 percent in 2005/06. The recent FAO (2009) statistics indicates that about 500,000 people in Botswana are food insecure mainly because they do not have access to quality food. For an import dependent country like Botswana, increase in prices due to high transportation costs and use of food crops for bio-fuels results in a decline of the countrys import capacity (Steven 2000). With macroeconomic policies that have proven to be efficient, competitive and sustainable in past years (BOB Annual Report 2008), the results from the FAO report and statistics of poverty rates in Botswana informs this discussion on what could be reasons leading to high rates of food insecurity in Botswana. The paper will discuss how policies and strategies on food security can be implemented to assist Botswana to achieve her intended goals of reducing poverty and the level of food insecurity, the effectiveness of the policies that have been put in place; the impact of the climate conditions on the food production and the effects of trade liberations. Management of natural resources and good implantation of agricultural policies are the most important determinants of food supply. Furthermore, the efficient support of markets, from the government have the capacity to improve the performance of appropriate roles each sector either the private sector or government in order to assist in curbing failing policies is important (Robinson 1997). These issues will be discussed in detail to analyse the situation in Botswana. Chapter 2: FOOD SECURITY Introduction There are various conceptual development of thinking on how to define food security, different writers have differing definitions. Whenever the title is introduced in the study, it is important to look closely to find an explicit definition because of its intensity. Food security is a widely debated topic, given that it affects people across the globe. Diseases, famine, wars are the major contributors to food insecurity especially in the sub Saharan African continent (Lado 2001) The World Bank (1986) defined food security as permanent access to sufficient food by all people at all times for an active, productive and healthy life, and this definition together with the FAO definition are widely accepted by institutions and organisations (Stevens 2000). The FAO (1998) defines food security as the right of everyone to have access to safe and nutritious food, consistent with the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger. Looking closely into the definitions, they seem to capture the most important components of food security which is the guarantee (availability) of having access (accessibility) to enough food (utilization) at any given time (Stevens 2000). These three components will be discussed further in the next section. Furthermore, a situation whereby people have the right to enough food leads to a healthy and productive life, and this is determined by access to and availability of food. Accessibility to food has a close relationship to economic growth and poverty. The poor usually do not have enough means to gain access to food in the required quantities (Alversen 1997). Habbard (1995) and Lado (2001) also provide a similar definition, these definitions indicates that people should be confident that food will always be accessible easily by having the economic right in order to maintain a healthy status. There are no satisfactory definitions of food security, hence there are some other alternative ways of describing it. Some researchers use terms such as food crisis, famine, and food insecurity to come up with suitable definition (Sen 1981). FAO defines food insecurity as a situation whereby people do not have adequate physical, social or economic access to food. In order to be able to define food security, it is prudent to differentiate between the household level and the national level of food security. Kotze (2000) explains household level as having enough food to ensure a minimum intake for all members of the household, while at the national level food insecurity exist because the countrys food production and trade entitlements becomes problematic. If the countrys production level becomes insufficient, it jeopardizes access to food by all, and also leads to inadequate supplies. In conclusion, food security can be defined as access to physical and economic means by all groups of people at all times in order to meet their dietary demand and food preferences for an active and healthy life. History of food security Food security has been in the public eye for many decades. The example provided by Tannehill (1988) of Julius Caesar struggle with the spiraling cost of food subsidies in ancient Rome shows the historic trend of interests in the evolution thinking of food security. The FAO report indicates that the food security concept started in the 1970s at a global food crisis meeting that was discussing the international food problems. The reduction in the food supply and instability of prices on basic foods led to the World food conference that was held in 1974 (ODI 1997). Maxwell (2001) characterized the history of thinking about the food security since the 1970s as a progressive conceptual development. Since the mid-1990s, more approaches based on the livelihoods approaches have dominated the discussions of poverty and food insecurity analysis. Since then, there have been more programs initiated to embark on fighting the food insecurity level in the world. Different approaches have been adopted to assess, monitor and map the way forward of food insecurity and vulnerability. A number of models have been developed and adopted by development countries in order to curb the problem of food insecurity. In the case of FAO for example, they came up with a program of refining the social economic analysis by expanding national food availability to include household and individuals (Devereux 2004). Components of food security Food security can be determined by different components which are related to the definitions provided earlier. Stevens (2000) explains these components of food security as the determining sets of factors. These components are availability, accessibility, utilization and vulnerability. All the form components conforms to the definition of the World Bank (1998) which is the guarantee (availability) of having access (accessibility) to enough food (utilization) at any given time by all people (vulnerability) (Stevens 2000). Causes of food insecurity Different studies show that there are many causes of food insecurity in the world. In the Sub Sahara continent, the increase in food insecurity is a result of poor economic and social conditions such as the population growth, natural disasters, and also political disturbances plays a major role. The southern Africa countries most have a bad climatic condition as reported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP 2005) and SADC monitoring unit. Furthermore, these poor weather conditions results in low production of Agricultural goods thus affecting food availability and utilization. Other contributors to food security will be discussed in depth, and these are as follows: Natural disasters, Low production of agricultural commodities, falling process of agricultural commodities, Scarcity of land, Unequal distribution of food and resources, Lack of purchasing power, Political instability and Population growth. CHAPTER 3: FOOD SECURITY IN BOTSWANA Brief description of Botswana Economic policies Botswana gained independence in 1966, during that time, the economy was dominated by the agriculture sector which comprised of mainly cattle farming, and it contributed about 40 per cent to the countrys GDP. Since then, the country enjoyed rapid economic transformation which placed Botswana on top of the list of countries in the African continent (CSO statistical bulletin 2006). In 1968 the economy of Botswana was mainly dependent on minerals such as diamonds. The mining sector now contributes about 51 per cent to the countrys GDP dominated by the diamonds, while the agricultural sector showed a decline in share of the GDP thus contributing about 4 per cent (CSO 2006). The most drastic changes in the economy were seen in the 1990s due to the decrease in diamond prices globally, (BOB 2008). These challenges resulted in the country to come up with other alternatives, hence decided to diversify the economy by looking into other sectors such as tourism, agriculture and textile manufactu ring (BIDPA). The IMF 2008 report indicates that economic growth has picked up especially in the non mining sector. Inflation has decreased stabilizing the targeted range by the central bank, though inflation risks remain (BOB 2008). Despite these structural economic changes, however the country is faced with high incidence of poverty, unemployment, and HIV/AIDS (IMF 2008). The country depends heavily on imports mainly from the neighboring country South Africa. Minerals and beef exports accounted for 85 and 4.4 per cent, respectively, of total exports in 2009 (CSO monthly trade report 2009). On the other, 22.0 percent and 13.3 percent of machinery equipment and food respectively shows the highest number of imports. Therefore, food remains the most important component of the import bill in order to meet the shortfall in most basic food commodities that the country cannot produce. Due to its land lock position, Botswanas economic development is vulnerable to external influences. The country is easily affected by the unstable political regional situation in southern Africa. Population trend The population of Botswana is approximately 1, 7 million. , leaving it in the 144th position amongst 193 nations in the world (UN). The population growth rate is estimated to be 2, 4 per cent per annum (CSO, 2009). The population in Botswana is unevenly distributed, with 54 per cent of the population living in the urban areas and 46 percent living in the rural areas (CSO stats update 2009). The main problem leading to the slow growth of population is mainly due to the high prevalence rate of HIV aids which stood at 17.1 percent in 2002. Agricultural polices Botswana started to adopt food security policies since the 1970s, and the policies were mainly to promote self sufficiency. In 1991, a shift in the policy from self sufficiency to food security was seen whereby the government, banks and donors, farmers worked together in order to fulfill the intentions of the policy (BOB 1990). In 1972, the Botswana Rural strategy was launched aimed to increase the level of production and improving the market facilities in the rural areas and creating rural employment opportunities. As part of its National Development Plan (NDP), a policy known as Accelerated Rural Development Program (ARDP) was formulated in 1973. Later in 1975, another program called The Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) aimed at maintaining optimal balance between the people, land and livestock (GOB 1972). As a way of showing commitment to availability of food to the people, the government in 1985 approved a National Food Strategy Policy for formulation and implementation of whole range of food security related programs (www.moa.gov.bw). Furthermore, the government introduced other programmes in line with the NDPs such as The Arable Land Development Programme (ALDEP) which was aimed at assisting small-scale farmers in increasing cereal production to promote self-sufficiency. The small farmers were provided with subsidies by the government to buy capital inputs such as farm implements, draft power and fencing. Another program called The Accelerated Rainfed Arable Program (ARAP) was launched. It provided farmers with short term assistance to help them recover from the drought season. During the NDP 6, the government allocated more funds to the agricultural sector, subsectors such as arable farming was targeted. The Financial Assistance Policy (FAP) programme was introduced to provide capital and labor grants to dairy farming, irrigated agriculture, poultry and small stock farming (Sigwele, 1991). Recently, the government reviewed all these policies to come up with new schemes that will increase the level of food production in the country. Certain constraints were identified such as non committal by farmers after receiving funds from the government (MOA 2006). The government also provided farmers with training skills and increased the budget on research and development to increase knowledge on achievements of self-sufficiency. However, with all the good initiatives by the government, the unfavorable climate conditions in Botswana made it difficult for the government to achieve the priorities of attaining self sufficiency programs due to periodic droughts (MOA 2006). Health Botswana has achieved remarkable advances in terms of achieving good health status. In order to achieve the goals of reducing poor families economically and socially, providing access to good health facilities will help to maintain good health status among people. The government should provide health programs , medication which everyone can access for free in order to enhance productivity and self reliance. The government of Botswana has shown commitment to improve its health status by increasing the allocation of resources to the health sector. In the past decades, we have seen the health sector given between 5 and 8 percent share. More hospitals have been constructed in various villages and proper training of personnel has been a major investment of the government. (www.gov.bw). Though Botswana is faced with challenges of high HIV prevalence rates and Malnutrition which has severely affected the economic and agricultural situation of the country, there is has been a substantial change in the health system, this is proven by the improvement of survival indicators (CSO stats update 2009). The government is trying to allocate resources evenly across the country through its implementation of the NDPs, but sometimes it fails to achieve this goal. Hence they may be some instances in which other regions get more developments than the others. This leads to most rural areas being disadvantaged and resulting in more health facilities it urban areas. People in the urban areas are better off as they can easily access the hospital due to good transportation systems. These differences may contribute more to the inequality and household poverty in Botswana. When people are ill or malnutrition, they cannot contribute positively to the production of food hence affecting the agriculture sector. Education Education is very important to the development of humanity creates better opportunities an choices for individuals. It empowers people to improve their welfare through increasing productivity and offer potential chances to improve standards of living. If more people are not educated, they cannot adapt easily to new innovation skills and technologies for agriculture, hence hampering government programmes to support food- self sufficiency, economic achievement and social prosperity. Climate and Environmental impacts Research has indicated that Botswanas climate change projections are vulnerable to climate change, posing a negative impact on the water resources and crop production. As currently there is no policy which deals with the problems caused by climate change, instead there are some recommendations that the government is trying to implement from the various studies that were conducted, a number of national policies are already in place responding to climate change. The government has demonstrated a high level of concern for environmental issues in the country. The climate of Botswana is distinguished by both high temperatures and low rainfall. There is disparity in rainfall in various districts. The northern part of the country usually gets more rain than the other parts of the country. The CSO report further indicates that the total land area of Botswana is 581,730 square kilometers where most of the land is infertile due to the predominant sandy soils and the unreliable and low rainfall. The land is differentiated into two types which are, The Kalahari Sandveld covering 77.2 percent of the land area and Eastern Hardveld covering 22.8 percent of the total land area (CSO 2008). The soils around the country are comparatively all poor. With its given conditions of weather, Botswana does not have suitable area of producing more food because the physical and climatic characteristics are not suitable for food production. This variability is of critical importance to food security and the populations use of the environment. Water and Sanitation Botswana is a water scarce country in southern Africa region due to its unfavorable weather conditions. Statistics shows that Botswana records high evaporation rates and low rainfall rates. There is concern about the low levels of water which are not able to meet the demand of the growing population and the economic expansion activities. The consumption of water has increased over the years and yet on the other hand water levels are declining manly due to drought seasons, especially in urban areas. The government of Botswana has adopted some imitative policies to provide and accelerate sanitation services with the aim of improving health conditions of the public. This was seen by an adoption of the Waste Management Bill of 1998, which resulted in the establishment of the Sanitation and Waste management Department (www.gov.bw). Sanitation promotes dignity, safety and privacy especially for women and girls. Clean, safe toilets and hand-washing facilities at home and school help increasing the childrens ability to learn. Improving health status helps individuals to earn a better living. With effective sanitation in place, it means that the environment will be safer and cleaner for all activities thus allowing children to play activities in clean environments. Families will also be able to prepare safe food and keep cleaner homes. Having access to clean water and good sanitation infrastructure leads to reduction in poverty and food insecurity (CSO Stats Update 2009). According to CSO report, about 84 per cent of urban residents have access to safe water. Government approach to food security The government of Botswana demonstrates the commitment to poverty alleviation through various programs. Botswana signed the United Nations global declarations for the improvement of human conditions and the Millennium Declaration of 2000. Botswana is also a signatory to the International Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990); the International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979); the SADC Gender and Development Declaration; the International Conference on Population and Development (1994); and the World Food Summit (Rome 1996). The government of Botswana has managed to adapt and implement good strategies towards poverty reduction and food security through its polices to alleviate poverty such as the Vision 2016, The National Policy on Rural Development, NDPs , the National Poverty Reduction Strategy and other policies, As part of its commitment to poverty reduction and food security, Botswana has adopted a United Nations Millennium Declaration from which the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) integrates the eradication of poverty and hunger. In order for the government of Botswana to mainstream poverty eradication and hunger, the government came up with the Vision 2016 strategy which its main aim is to propel the socio economic and development into a competitive, winning and prosperous nation. This strategy is aligned to the countries National Development Plan 9 which is currently active and also it is aligned to the MDGs. Furthermore they provide guidance on how the agriculture sector will be productive and sustainable, and how they will make positive changes to the economic development, poverty alleviation programs and food security by the year 2016 (Vision 2016 document, 2003). CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS In this chapter, I will look into the trends of data on Households methods of obtaining food, field and harvest size, Number of meals per day consumed by each member of the household, Level of trade statistics and other elements that are contributors to food insecurity. And also some case studies that have been done in the past about the situation of Botswana on food security. 4.1 Food Production Deficiency Botswana has a semi- arid climate, only five percent of the land is suitable for arable farming (FAO 2008 Statistics). This makes it difficult for the country to have support for food production in order to meet the demands of the consumers. In developing countries, the arable land use is deviating from its use of farming to industrial base thus resulting in number of farmers reducing (Brown 1995). In Botswana, a similar case is shown by a decline in the level of food production as indicated by figures 1, 2 and 3. Since 1995, the production level of food is insufficient, maize, millet and other crops are manly affected until 2005. This poses to be a threat to the level of food security in Botswana because if food production reduces, many people will not be able to have access to food. As compared to other countries, for example China, as a developing country is undergoing through some process of industrialization, their agricultural land has seen some land use changes to industries, housing and infrastructure leading to a decline in the arable land base. Similarly, a decline in the farming base has been experienced in developed countries, such as Japan. Japan produces about 47% of its calories and relies on imports from other countries. Before in 1960, Japan had about 11.75 million farms which declined to 3.13 million in 1992. Furthermore estimates shows that the economically active population in agriculture will be older hence a less number of people will be left in the agriculture sector (Mikishi Okada Association, personal communication, 1996). From this research, we can see that the global world is becoming more food insecure with shortage of land for farming playing a major role. For the world to run away from poverty, they should take land as a very important resource. If developed countries and developing countries increases the levels of urban agriculture, may be countries will begin to bear fruits by creating conducive environment for food stability (UNDP 1996). In order to achieve this, countries should come up with good policies in land tenure and maximise the local food production as a strategy to stabilise world food resources. Water is becoming increasingly scarce in Botswana. A number of countries throughout the world experience water shortages (Nicholas 1994). To enhance proper implementation of policies on food security, governments has to increase their expenditure on agriculture sector in order to promote agricultural production. But this has important implications for water availability. Water scarcity is not currently a major issue in Botswana only, even in the entire world, hence it more attention is needed by policy makers and should not be neglected. Not only the irrigation agriculture will be affected, all other sectors are affected by lack of water. It should be recognised that a land-use decision is also a water-use decision. A plan based on improving rain-fed agriculture through adoption of measures to make better use of rainfall brings trade-offs in that there may be less runoff to satisfy the water needs of downstream users and environmental functions. Planning for future food security req uires integrated analysis of land-use and water resources issues (Gowing 2003). The agriculture sector in Botswana is composed of the livestock sub sector and farming sub- sector. The sectors include a traditional system and a commercialized system. The livestock contributes about eighty percent to the agriculture sector (Agriculture Census Report 2004). The above figure 4, shows a decline in the livestock population. Botswana is deficient overall in food production under the current state of technology due to drought. The decline in population of the cattle is mainly due to higher recorded numbers of animal mortality cases. Botswana is mostly affected by the Foot and Mouth Disease which affects the growth of livestock population (CSO Stats brief 2008). 4.2 Employment and Inequality in urban and rural areas The agriculture sector share on Botswanas GDP has shown a decline, it stood at 3.7 percent and 1.8 percent in 1994 and 2008 respectively (CSO stats brief 2008). The cause in the decline is mainly due to the fact that from the previous analysis, we have seen that the food production reduced, and the population of the livestock reduced. The 2002/03 HIES report shows that 21.20 percent of the population in Botswana is employed by the agriculture sector and this was the highest sector at national level. The agriculture sector further employs 50.3 percent of people in the rural areas leaving a problem of rural inequality due to economys primary reliance on cattle sub sector. Moreover, even in the livestock sector, there is a substantial inequality. The data shows a skewed distribution of ownership of resources. The report further shows that even though agriculture sector employs a large proportion of the population, the income earned is lower in general as compared to other sectors. Only a minority of the population owns cattle and farming land while the rest depend on agriculture by working, they do not have cattle of their own. About 80 percent of rural households produced insufficient food to feed themselves, and the average household produce less than half of its daily caloric requirement (HIES 2002/03). In rural areas, there are more single households headed by females than in urban areas. They are mostly affected by food insecurity as they are unable to feed and provide substantial care for their families (FAO 2000). This resulted in Botswana adopting strategies that can help the country in its diversification programs in order to alleviate poverty. 4.3 Food Consumption According to the FAO, the food  [1]  consumption refers to the amount of food available for human consumption as estimated by the FAO Food Balance Sheets. The data used was extracted from the FAO statistical database, however the actual food consumption recorded may be lower than the quantity shown as food availability depending on the magnitude of wastage and losses of food in the household, e.g. during storage, in preparation and cooking, as plate-waste or quantities fed to domestic animals and pets, thrown or given away. Food consumption per person is the amount of food, in terms of quantity, for each individual in the total population. Figure 5 shows food groups and the quantities consumed. From the figure, it can be seen that cereals excluding beer and milk excluding butter are the mostly consumed food category, even though showing a decline over the period. From a food security point of view, this is not a good sign of progress for the countrys state of food security. The starchy roots and alcoholic beverages follows as the most consumed food category in Botswana. The 2002/03 HIES report also indicates a shift in consumption patterns of households. Alcohol and Tobacco category remains the highest consumed food after the food category (HIES 2002/03). Research has shown that alcohol has a negative relationship towards food security because households members spend more of their disposable income on alcohol rather than buying food, thus resulting in lack of access to food by other members of the household. In Botswana research has shown that high intake of alcohol has a positive relationship in contribution to high prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS (BIAS II 2005). CHAPTER 5: CONCULSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions will be made on the basis of the data analysis, and also after discussing the policies aimed at improving the level of food security by the government, how effective are they implemented by policy makers, and then will discuss what the government should learn from other countries who fairing well in maintaining low values of food insecure people.

Ideal Education

A university is an institution that educates a student to better prepare them to work in the field that they choose. The best curriculum varies for each student, but it is necessary that the students have some experience in the working environment before they set out on their own. For engineers, strong working skills of your major and internships are essential to survive in today†s society. A successful engineer must also take additional courses writing and computer technology and spend no less than five years in the university. The ideal engineering student would go above and beyond the academic requirements for completing their major and would have working experience in the field that they choose. As an electrical engineering student at the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), I have been exposed to a curriculum that gives students more exposure to other areas of the field. The curriculum includes more technical writing and computer technology courses that will help students prepare for the tasks performed by an actual engineer. Some corporations, such as Alcar, are even making courses in communication, technology, and management into prerequisites to work in the industry. These types of courses are especially gratifying because they qualify students for better jobs and allow students to express their ideas more clearly. These traditionally non-engineering courses have now become necessary to complete the best possible engineering education. Linda Geppart supports my theory of a wider spectrum of classes in her article, â€Å"Educating the Renaissance Engineer. Geppart believes that engineers may have their areas of specialty, but they need exposure to other areas as well. For example, an engineer must have at least a working knowledge of other technologies so they know where to seek help to solve a problem. Also, many engineers are needed in other professional areas such as marketing, manufacturing, development, and research. â€Å"This means that engineers need to have communication and writing skills†, said Jin Park, professor of electrical engineering at Yonsei University (in Geppart, p. 16). Progress in communications and technology keeps raising the level of knowledge that engineers need today. Another step to the ideal education would require the students to have experience working in the field they have chosen. Many Universities are giving their students the option to have an internship to fulfill the academic requirements for that semester. My brother, a computer engineering major at Creighton University, has the choice to take an internship the final semester of his junior year. Mentioned in the Geppart article was how many universities in Europe are requiring their students to have internships. In Germany, it is mandatory for the electrical engineering students to spend at least a half-year in the industry. An internship is an extremely valuable part of an engineering education and should be integrated into more Universities. On-the-job experience gives students a chance to work on real projects in an industrial environment. The students working in the actual industry are far better off than the students learning similar material at a desk are because they will have hands on experience doing the work of an actual engineer. Work experience is a crucial part of any education. The time when most colleges allow internships is at the end of the junior year. This way, the students will be able to focus on the topics that they need for that job or a similar one. Some companies will even pay for your last years of college or for your certification, in order to bring you back. In order to receive the best education possible, a student should be able to choose their own electives in their major, especially since many students decide to go into different fields of work later on. Many schools such as Carnegie Mellon University are adapting this into their curriculum and letting their students customize their own education. Most students would obtain much more knowledge in classes they were actually interested in than those they were â€Å"getting out of the way† to fulfill their graduation requirements. I find myself working a lot harder in classes that I am interested in than those that I am not interested in. The notion of choosing your own electives is also very important for those who want to pursue their bachelor†s degree with a degree in another field such as medicine or business. Finally, four years is not a lot of time to receive the best education. A student should stay in a university long enough to get a masters degree or a double major, which would usually be about five years. UCSB offers many different five-year programs including a combination engineering degree with a business degree or an engineering degree with a computer science degree. Also available at UCSB, like in many universities, are the higher education programs like the master†s degree or a PHD. It is essential for universities to offer such programs to give students the opportunity to obtain the ideal education. The expanded program at UCSB does not allow the students to pick many classes outside the requirements because the double major takes up almost all of the time. But the ability to broaden the spectrum of classes a student takes lies in the individual student. A student could still graduate in less time by taking summer courses. The ideal student would complete the requirements for their major and take extra classes to widen the spectrum of their knowledge in their line of work. The model student would also spend some amount of time working in the field that the have chosen. The best curriculum differs for each student depending on their major but it is vital that they spend no less than five years in the university to complete higher education and get, at least, a master†s degree. The more each individual student puts into their college career, the better it will pay off for him or her in the future. Ideal Education A university is an institution that educates a student to better prepare them to work in the field that they choose. The best curriculum varies for each student, but it is necessary that the students have some experience in the working environment before they set out on their own. For engineers, strong working skills of your major and internships are essential to survive in today†s society. A successful engineer must also take additional courses writing and computer technology and spend no less than five years in the university. The ideal engineering student would go above and beyond the academic requirements for completing their major and would have working experience in the field that they choose. As an electrical engineering student at the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), I have been exposed to a curriculum that gives students more exposure to other areas of the field. The curriculum includes more technical writing and computer technology courses that will help students prepare for the tasks performed by an actual engineer. Some corporations, such as Alcar, are even making courses in communication, technology, and management into prerequisites to work in the industry. These types of courses are especially gratifying because they qualify students for better jobs and allow students to express their ideas more clearly. These traditionally non-engineering courses have now become necessary to complete the best possible engineering education. Linda Geppart supports my theory of a wider spectrum of classes in her article, â€Å"Educating the Renaissance Engineer. Geppart believes that engineers may have their areas of specialty, but they need exposure to other areas as well. For example, an engineer must have at least a working knowledge of other technologies so they know where to seek help to solve a problem. Also, many engineers are needed in other professional areas such as marketing, manufacturing, development, and research. â€Å"This means that engineers need to have communication and writing skills†, said Jin Park, professor of electrical engineering at Yonsei University (in Geppart, p. 16). Progress in communications and technology keeps raising the level of knowledge that engineers need today. Another step to the ideal education would require the students to have experience working in the field they have chosen. Many Universities are giving their students the option to have an internship to fulfill the academic requirements for that semester. My brother, a computer engineering major at Creighton University, has the choice to take an internship the final semester of his junior year. Mentioned in the Geppart article was how many universities in Europe are requiring their students to have internships. In Germany, it is mandatory for the electrical engineering students to spend at least a half-year in the industry. An internship is an extremely valuable part of an engineering education and should be integrated into more Universities. On-the-job experience gives students a chance to work on real projects in an industrial environment. The students working in the actual industry are far better off than the students learning similar material at a desk are because they will have hands on experience doing the work of an actual engineer. Work experience is a crucial part of any education. The time when most colleges allow internships is at the end of the junior year. This way, the students will be able to focus on the topics that they need for that job or a similar one. Some companies will even pay for your last years of college or for your certification, in order to bring you back. In order to receive the best education possible, a student should be able to choose their own electives in their major, especially since many students decide to go into different fields of work later on. Many schools such as Carnegie Mellon University are adapting this into their curriculum and letting their students customize their own education. Most students would obtain much more knowledge in classes they were actually interested in than those they were â€Å"getting out of the way† to fulfill their graduation requirements. I find myself working a lot harder in classes that I am interested in than those that I am not interested in. The notion of choosing your own electives is also very important for those who want to pursue their bachelor†s degree with a degree in another field such as medicine or business. Finally, four years is not a lot of time to receive the best education. A student should stay in a university long enough to get a masters degree or a double major, which would usually be about five years. UCSB offers many different five-year programs including a combination engineering degree with a business degree or an engineering degree with a computer science degree. Also available at UCSB, like in many universities, are the higher education programs like the master†s degree or a PHD. It is essential for universities to offer such programs to give students the opportunity to obtain the ideal education. The expanded program at UCSB does not allow the students to pick many classes outside the requirements because the double major takes up almost all of the time. But the ability to broaden the spectrum of classes a student takes lies in the individual student. A student could still graduate in less time by taking summer courses. The ideal student would complete the requirements for their major and take extra classes to widen the spectrum of their knowledge in their line of work. The model student would also spend some amount of time working in the field that the have chosen. The best curriculum differs for each student depending on their major but it is vital that they spend no less than five years in the university to complete higher education and get, at least, a master†s degree. The more each individual student puts into their college career, the better it will pay off for him or her in the future.